Scott London
March 1994

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POLITICS AND TECHNOLOGY
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Abramson, Jeffrey B.; Arterton, F. Christopher; Orren, Gary R. THE
ELECTRONIC COMMONWEALTH:THE IMPACT OF NEW MEDIA TECHNOLOGIES
ON DEMOCRATIC POLITICS. (New York: Basic Books, 1988.)

One of the first comprehensive and authoritative discussions
of the new media technologies and their impact on American
politics. The authors argue that revolutionary as the new
communications technologies may be, there is nothing
inherent in them that "determines whether they will be used
to befriend or belittle democracy." Their vision of America
as an "electronic commonwealth" composed of diverse
communities served by heterogeneous programming and
participating in a variety of electronic town meetings is
counterpoised to the prevailing trend toward "electronic
plebiscitary democracy," which the authors believe would
impoverish the public debate on which democracy thrives. If
used instead to remove the obstacles of distance and time,
the new media would prove an ally of democracy. The
authors' primary concern throughout remains the tension
between using the new media to "quicken" democracy through
electronic polls, home-centered voting and other instant
feedback schemes, versus using their congregating and
conferencing capacities to slow down and enhance it.

Arterton, F. Christopher. TELEDEMOCRACY: CAN TECHNOLOGY PROTECT
DEMOCRACY? (Newbury Park, CA: SAGE Publications, 1987)

A groundbreaking work that explores the results from
experiments in electronically mediated forums, and what they
may suggest about the future of democracy. Arterton
concludes that there is "little support for the notion that
citizens have the interest necessary to sustain near
universal participation.... Most citizens, probably around
two-thirds, will not participate." Arterton provides a very
useful conceptual model of four different applications for
electronic forums.

Arterton, F. Christopher. "Communications Technology and Political
Campaigns in 1982: Assessing the Implications." Unpublished
paper. March, 1983.

An early survey of the use of the major new telecommunica-
tions technologies in political campaigning. Arterton
speculates on the likely effects of these technologies on
the future of politics.

Barber, Benjamin. "The Second Revolution." Channels, Feb./Mar. 1982,
pp. 21-25, 62.

Barber speculates what the "second television age" - the
prospect of interactive media - will mean for American
democracy. Television, he writes, has the potential of
being a democratic "miracle remedy" permitting citizens the
chance "to realize the ideal of an active and informed
citizenry."

Barber, Benjamin. STRONG DEMOCRACY. (Berkeley & Los Angeles: Univ. of
California Press, 1984)

In this seminal work on the failures of liberal democratic
theory, Barber argues for a new form of participatory
politics based on democratic talk, decision-making, and
common action. "What strong democracy requires is a form of
town meeting in which participation is direct yet
communication is regional or even national," he writes.
Electronic town meetings can "enhance the quality of
citizenship and the prudence of popular political judgment."
Technology is an integral component of Barber's recipe for
strong democracy (see pp. 273-93).

Becker, Ted. "Teledemocracy." The Futurist, Dec. 1981, pp. 6-9.

An early and optimistic survey of experiments within the
field of electronic democracy. Becker distinguishes between
two forms of teledemocracy: television talkback
(interactive devices) and public participation (similar to
the electronic public), but maintains that only a
combination of the two will bring about truly democratic
results.

Broder, David S. "Electronic Democracy." The Washington Post, Aug. 30,
1987, p. C7.

Broder speculates on the future of politics upon reading
Arterton's TELEDEMOCRACY and Hollander's VIDEO DEMOCRACY.

Bryan, Frank & McClaughry, John. THE VERMONT PAPERS. (Post Mills, VT:
Chelsea Green, 1989)

Bryan and McClaughry maintain that "real democracy cannot,
by definition, be writ large." In this call for a return to
"human scale" participatory democracy, the authors outline
the value of new communications media and suggest how they
might best be used "to bring the information technology to
the town meeting rather than try to approximate the charac-
teristics of a town meeting at the mass level."

Cronin, Thomas E. DIRECT DEMOCRACY: THE POLITICS OF INITIATIVE,
REFERENDUM, AND RECALL. (Cambridge MA: Harvard Univ. Press,
1989)

A comprehensive study of the movement toward populist
democracy at both local and state levels. Cronin discusses
the philosophical dichotomy between Madisonian and
Jeffersonian democracy and explores the political
consequences of teledemocracy.

Dworetzky, Tom. "Electronic Democracy." Omni Magazine, Feb. 1992,
p. 27.

While communication technology could allow for a direct form
of democracy, voters would not be able to make better
decisions than politicians, writes Dworetzky. He suggests,
however, that technology can be used to provide more in
depth information to voters.

Elmer-Dewitt, Philip. "Dial D for Democracy." Time, Jun. 6, 1992, pp. 44-45.

"It may be inevitable that the U.S. will eventually adopt
some forms of electronic government," Elmer-Dewitt writes,
"but the challenge to the nation ... will be to use the new
technology to support representative democracy, not subvert
it."

Fineman, Howard. "People's Politics." Newsweek. Apr. 20, 1992, pp. 30-33.

A report on the phenomenon of "Talk Show Democracy" during
the 1992 campaigns.

Fishkin, James S. "Reforming the Invisible Primary." Chronicles, Nov.
1992, pp. 23, 25.

Fishkin maintains that "the primary selection process ...
has largely been a failure" because it is neither
representative nor deliberative. "New innovations are
necessary if we are to create a public voice for the
expression of the will of the people," he says, describing
his deliberative opinion poll concept.

Gleick, James. "The Telephone Transformed Into Almost Everything." The
New York Times Magazine, May 16, 1993, pp. 26-29, 50, 53-58.

Is technology "about to liberate us or to overwhelm us,"
Gleick asks in this long article about the explosion of new
information technologies. "We're all connected by
communications miracles," he says. "It's the people, still
fumbling with the Switch Hook Flash, who are stuck in the
Stone Age."

Henderson, Hazel. CREATING ALTERNATIVE FUTURES. (New York: Berkely
Windover, 1978)

A collection of Henderson's essays from the early to
mid-'seventies in which she asserts that our economic,
political and technological problems result, ultimately,
from "the inadequacy of the Castesian world view," and the
"masculine-oriented style" of our social institutions. She
points out that economic and institutional growth are
inextricable linked to technological growth. Technological
innovations and social change develop in tandem, she notes,
illustrating how the groundswell of public discontent with
politics-as-usual has been expressed through a variety of
new communications technologies. Chapter 14 provides a
survey of early experiments in electronic democracy.

Henderson, Hazel. "Perfecting Democracy's Tools." New Perspectives
Quarterly, Fall 1992, pp. 22-24. (Reprinted as "The Electronic
Revolt." in Toronto Star, Nov. 29, 1992, pp. B1, B7)

A futurist perspective on the technological challenges
facing democracy. We have developed the hardware that
enable electronic breakthroughs, Henderson suggests, but not
the software - the "rules of interaction, knowledge, values,
ethics and morals." Democracy runs the risk of losing the
faith of the people unless it adapts to the new technologi-
cal innovations that can give them a voice, she says.

Hollander, Richard. VIDEO DEMOCRACY: THE VOTE-FROM-HOME REVOLUTION. (Mt.
Airy, MD: Lomond, 1985)

"What is proposed here is to merge the spirit of ancient
Athens with the technologies of the twenty-first century -
Pericles with digital transmission. Direct democracy can
and should have a rebirth," writes Hollander.

Hughes, Dave. "Electronic Democracy." ENA Netweaver (E-Journal), Vol
3, No 10, Article 6 (October 1987)

Some reflections on the application of technology
(especially computer networking) to politics. "I happen to
believe that we haven't begun to scratch the surface of the
possibilites of Electronic Democracy," Hughes says.

Hurly, Paul. "The Promises and Perils of Videotex." The Futurist, Apr.
1985, pp. 7-13.

Adapted from Hurly's book The Videotex and Teletex Handbook,
this article examines viewdata and teletex - two relatively
recent technological innovations - and their potential
benefits to the public.

Laudon, Kenneth C. COMMUNICATIONS TECHNOLOGY AND DEMOCRATIC
PARTICIPATION. (New York: Praeger, 1977)

An early examination of the relationship between democratic
theory and the new technologies. Describes his experiments
with Etzioni, Lipson and the New Jersey League of Women
Voters, using teleconferencing.

London, Scott. "Electronic Democracy." Kettering Foundation Report,
February 1993.

A background report on electronic town meetings and the
civic potential of the new communications technologies.

Loth, Renee. "Techno-politics is Coming of Age." Boston Globe, Jun. 1, 1992.

Loth examines the impending age of electronic politics and
cites David Garth, Christopher Arterton, Darrell West, John
Ellis, and Dan Payne.

McLuhan, Marshall. THE MEDIUM IS THE MASSAGE. (New York: Bantam, 1967)

A provocative look at the new age of electronic technology
and its transformation of nearly every aspect of modern
life: "Politics offers yesterday's answers to today's
questions," McLuhan writes, but "today, the mass audience
(the successor to the `public') can be used as a creative,
participating force."

Malbin, Michael. "Teledemocracy and its Discontents." Public
Opinion, Jun/Jul 1982, pp. 58-59.

Malbin takes issue with advocates of teledemocracy who
believe the new media can be used for direct democracy or
for gauging public judgment. Not only is majority rule an
ineffectual form of governance, but it would be based on
"unrefined opinions," Malbin argues. "The purpose of the
Republic, after all, is not to make every citizen a public
figure."

Naisbitt, John. MEGATRENDS. (New York: Warner Books, 1982.)

The bestselling "futurist" guide to the social and political
forces at work in the 1980s and `90s. Naisbitt maintains
that a communications revolution will transform our
politics, and that electronic town meetings can enable
citizens to hear and contribute to the community discussion
of issues. Electronic voting, he believes, will herald a
new age of referenda and plebiscites, giving citizens the
power to decide matters for themselves rather than
surrendering their decision-making power to representatives.

Perry, James M. "Party May be Over for Democrats, Republicans as
Candidates use `Teledemocracy,' New Media." The Wall Street
Journal, Nov. 4, 1992, p. A16.

Reflections on the 1992 campaigns, which, as Perry writes,
"has changed the face of U.S. politics for years to come,"
mainly through the introduction of new ideas of political
communication. Perry explores Perot's ideas of the
electronic town hall and cites professor Jeffrey Abramson.

Pool, Ithiel de Sola. "Citizen Feedback in Political Philosophy" in
TALKING BACK. Ed., Ithiel de Sola Pool. (Cambridge, MA: MIT
Press, 1973, pp. 237-46)

In this essay on the "philosophical issues" posed by the new
media technologies, Pool quickly dismisses their usefulness
as instant push-button polling devices. He notes, however,
that they can be of great value in quickening citizen
feedback, creating more intensive interaction between
citizens and their representatives, and in offsetting public
alienation from the political process.

Postman, Neil. TECHNOPOLY: THE SURRENDER OF CULTURE TO TECHNOLOGY. (New
York: Knopf, 1992)

Technology, according to Postman, "does not invite a close
examination of its own consequences," yet "its gifts are not
without a heavy cost." He examines our social and political
relationship to technology, and how it is so deeply
ingrained in our collective consciousness that we assume
that science is a natural ally of democracy, when, in
effect, "it destroys the vital sources of our humanity."
See pp. 123-43 for a provocative look at the practice of
polling.

Rheingold, Howard. "Electronic Democracy." Whole Earth Review, Summer
1991, pp. 4-13.

"In the age of mass media, citizens and grassroots groups
need an equalizer," Rheingold writes, suggesting that the
new media provide an avenue "to gather critical information,
organize political action, sway public opinion and guide
policy making." He provides an introductory overview of the
fundamentals of the new technologies, as well as a useful
resource guide.

Salisbury, David F. "Humanities vs. Technology." Christian Science
Monitor, Jan. 7, 1985, p. 23.

Reports on a symposium sponsored by the Institute for the
Human Environment titled "Entering the Information Age: Big
Brother or Utopia," in which a group of noted humanists
gathered to discuss the deepening divide between science and
the humanities, and the impact of the new communications
technologies.

Sandel, Michael. "Post-National Democracy Vs. Electronic
Bonapartism." New Perspectives Quarterly, Fall 1992, pp. 4-8.

An interview with Michael Sandel on the challenges facing
democracy at home and abroad. Revitalizing the political
agenda cannot be done electronically, Sandel says, "you
can't get away from the public deliberation and discourse
that frames the questions and presents the alternatives."

Schudson, Michael. "The limits of Teledemocracy." pp. 41-45. The
American Prospect, Fall, 1992, pp. 41-45.

Social historian Schudson reflects that the failure of
today's politics may be "at its root, a failure to
communicate." Reform efforts aimed at increasing public
engagement (such as the electronic town hall) will be
ineffective unless they are designed to foster public
discourse. Perot's vision of teledemocracy is not unlike
polling, he says, which has "taught us one clear lesson:
the answer depends on the question." Perot's idea of direct
plebiscitary decision-making "short-circuits representative
government" while also ignoring one of the basic conditions
of democracy: public deliberation. This notion has it that
the public would simply answer questions, Schudson says,
"framed by a president who, in Perot's system, would be a
frighteningly strong leader. This is tell-a-democracy, or
perhaps sell-a-democracy, not teledemocracy."

Schwartz, Evan I. "Are You Ready For the Democacy Channel." Wired, Vol.
2.01 (January 1994)

What will the dawn of the electronic age mean for the future
of politics, Schwartz asks. His article describes numerous
experiments in electronic democracy, from the efforts of the
Public Agenda Foundation to create legitimate electronic
town meetings to Jeffrey Reiss's proposed Democracy Channel.

Toffler, Alvin. FUTURE SHOCK. (New York: Random House, 1970, 1974)

Toffler's enourmously popular examination of the
technological revolution and its overwhelming impact on the
modern individual. Toffler explains that "the political
technology of the industrial age (representative democracy)
is no longer appropriate for the new civilization forming
around us." He calls for an anticipatory democracy based on
citizen feedback and a "continuing plebiscite on the
future."

Toffler, Alvin. THE THIRD WAVE. (New York: William Morrow & Co., 1980)

Toffler's follow-up to "Future Shock" in which he attempts
to determine "the destinations toward which change is
carrying us." He devotes the final chapter to "twenty-first
century democracy" which he envisions will involve "advanced
computers, satellites, telephones, cable, polling
technoques, and other tools." With the help of these media,
"an educated citizenry can, for the first time in history,
begin making many of its own political decisions," Toffler
explains.

Toregas, Costis. "Electronic Democracy." Public Management, Nov. 1989,
pp. 2-3.

Subtitled "Some definitions and a battle cry," this article
explains the rationale behind electronic democracy and
illustrates why it has become a political imperative for
local government.

Turque, Bill. "Wiring Up the Age of Technopolitics." Newsweek, Jun. 15,
1992, p. 25.

The use of personal computers and innovative telephone
systems may change the way American campaigns are conducted
in the future, says Turque. Ross Perot is using
state-of-the-art technology to identify potential voters and
engage them in electronic town meetings.

Varn, Richard. "Electronic Democracy: Jeffersonia Boom or Teraflop?"
Spectrum, Spring 1993, pp. 21-25.

The instant feedback that advanced technology provides could
become more of a detriment that an attribute if politicians
replace backbone with poll-taking or if they believe that
electronic town meetings resemble the real thing, according
to Varn.

Winner, Langdon. AUTONOMOUS TECHNOLOGY. (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1977)

Winner contends that "humankind faces a woefully permanent
bondage to the power of its own inventions," and that
politics has become subject to technical devices which
cannot be reconstructed, only deconstructed. "If the
phenomenon of technological politics is to be overcome," he
says, "a truly political technology must be put in its
place."

Winner, Langdon. THE WHALE AND THE REACTOR. (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago
Press, 1986)

A forceful critique of modern technology's impact on human
affairs. "When we use words like `output,' `feedback,'
`interface,' and `networking,' to express the transactions
of everyday life, we reveal how thoroughly artificial things
now shape our sense of human being," Winner observes. He
claims that new faith in teledemocracy is a "strange mania"
reflecting "dreams of distant liberation from centralized
social control [that] have accompanied virtually every
important new technological system introduced in the past
century and a half."


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ELECTRONIC TOWN MEETINGS
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Becker, Ted. "Teledemocracy: Gathering Momentum in State and Local
Governance." Spectrum, Spring 1993. pp. 14-20.

State and local experiments in electronic town meetings and
electronic forums are adding to the sum total of knowledge
about how to use technology to advance democracy, according
to Becker. He describes projects in Hawaii, Georgia,
Oregon, New Mexico, and Nova Scotia that "offer evidence
that teledemocracy is the wave of the future."

Becker, Theodore & Slaton, Christa. ELECTRONIC TOWN MEETINGS: A QUANTUM
LEAP IN DEMOCRACY. (Forthcoming)

Bernstein, Richard B. "Hot-Wiring the Convention, 1787." Editorial.
The New York Times, Jul. 17, 1992, p. A27.

Prompted by Perot's remark to his supporters, "the Founding
Fathers would have been proud of you," Bernstein asks: would
the Founding Fathers have been proud the Electronic Town
Hall? Imagining the 10-month long argument over the
Constitution televised in modern fashion, he concludes that
"interactive television, a boon for home shopping, would
have been fatal to constitution-making."

Betts, Mitch. "Electronic Town Meetings: a Safe Vote?"
Computerworld, Oct. 26, 1992.

A brief survey of electronic town meetings, prompted by an
electronic poll conducted over Interactive Network (IN) in
San Francisco.

"The CAL-SPAN Electronic Town Hall." Project proposal. CAL-SPAN,
Sacramento, CA., 1992.

Outlines the now defunct California Satellite Public Access
Network's plans for a series of electronic town meetings.

Elgin, Duane. "Conscious Democracy Through Electronic Town Meetings."
Whole Earth Review, Summer 1991, pp. 28-29.

"Given that we can trust the wisdom of the citizenry, the
challenge is to find a way to regularly pool the good
judgment and foresight of the public," Elgin says. He
outlines his strategy for, and experience with, electronic
town meetings.

Elgin, Duane. "Revitalizing Democracy Through Electronic Town
Meetings." Spectrum, Spring 1993, pp. 6-13.

Our world is changing so fast that democracy is endangered
unless citizens are involved continuously in setting policy
direction, according to Elgin. Modern technology offers the
means to engage the public in decision-making, but there is
always the risks that it can be misused.

Elgin, Duane, et al. Bay Voice - Newsletter of the Bay Voice
Organization, Menlo Park, CA., April 1989.

Announces plans for a "pilot" electronic town meeting in the
San Francisco Bay Area, with a description of how it works.

Etzioni, Amatai. "MINERVA: An Electronic Town Hall." Policy
Sciences, No. 3, 1972, pp. 457-74.

A paper describing the rationale behind the MINERVA
experiments in the early `seventies. Etzioni presents a
very detailed model of a "mass dialogue and response
system." A pioneer study.

Etzioni, Amatai. "Teledemocracy." The Atlantic, October, 1992, pp. 34-39.

A sober assessment of the perils and potential rewards of
teledemocracy. Documenting the results of his experiments
for the National Science Foundation, begun in the early
1970s, Etzioni suggests that several key problems must be
addressed before the electronic town hall will be feasible
on a large scale. Telepolling, however, can be used to
supplement US democracy and increase public involvement in
national politics. A system that is layered and contains
mandates should be explored, he says.

Etzioni, Amatai; Laudon, Kenneth; Lipson, Sara. "Participatory
Technology: The MINERVA Communications Tree." Jounal of
Communication, Spring, 1975, pp. 64-74.

The authors propose a way in which "millions of people can
enter into dialogue with one another and with their
representatives." They outline a "telephone conference
tree" system of representation which permits "both upward
and lateral communication." They document a teleconference
experiment with the League of Women Voters in New Jersey in
1973.

Fromm, Erich. THE SANE SOCIETY. (New York: Rinehart & Co., 1955, 1959)

In this groundbreaking psycho-sociological study of modern
culture, Fromm shows how the individual has become alienated
from his fellow human beings, from goverment, and even from
himself. Fromm describes a rudimentary form of "electronic
town meeting" which he believes would offset the sense of
estrangement from community life and give the citizenry a
more active role in shaping public policy.

Kingston, Robert. "CAL-SPAN and the Electronic Town Meeting."
Unpublished memo to KF/NIF/CAL-SPAN, Jan. 30, 1992.

The phrase "Electronic Town Meeting" (ETM) is easier to
handle than the concept, according to Kingston. ETMs, he
says, cannot hope to achieve more than traditional town
meetings, although they can bring more people into the
discussion. The essential component is the deliberative
process, without which they cannot properly be called
"meetings." Kingston outlines a joint NIF, CHD (California
Health Decisions) and CAL-Span strategy for organizing an
electronic forum.

Miller, Vernon F. "The Town Meeting Reborn." Saturday Review, Jul. 23,
1966, pp. 34-35.

Featured in a series of articles on "the new computerized
age." Miller suggests that "we can use mass media and
electronic responses to sharpen our judgments." One of the
first references to an electronic town meeting.

Remp, Richard. "The Efficacy of Electronic Group Meetings." Policy
Sciences 5 (1975), pp. 101-115.

Remp documents his experiments in telephone conferencing as
a medium of electronic discourse.

Schwartz, Evan. "Electronic Town Meetings: Reach Out and Vote for
Something." Business Week, Apr. 13, 1992, p. 38.

Describes electronic town meetings in a broader context than
that given by Perot. Cites Elgin, Becker, Fromm and
Toffler, and gives three examples of towns in Pennsylvania,
Alaska and California which have successfully implemented
the concept.

Winerip, Michael. "Our Towns: Now, Citizens Can Let Fingers Do the
Talking." The New York Times, Oct. 25, 1988, p. B1.

Describes New York State's first electronic town meeting.


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ROSS PEROT AND THE `ELECTRONIC TOWN HALL'
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Abramson, Jeffrey. "Perot's `Electronic Town Hall' Wouldn't Work."
Letter To the Editor. The New York Times, Jun. 21, 1992.

The current discussion of electronic town meetings, Abramson
says, "needs to be explored to see if it has room for
genuine deliberation among citizens or whether it invites no
more than the pseudoparticipation of instant voting.

Donahue, Hugh Carter. "Ross Perot as Master of the Media." The Christian
Science Monitor, Jun. 24, 1992, p. 18.

In spite of the potential abuses of Perot-style
teledemocracy, Donahue maintains that "Perot's candidacy is
indicative of our times and technology.... At a time when
both journalism and representative government are
challenged, communications technologies, principally
television, enable nearly real-time presentation of public
affairs providing immediacy and a sense of participation."

Dougherty, Dick. "Look at the Bright Side: We're Spared." Gannet News
Service, Jul. 21, 1992.

"We're spared, at least for now, the electronic town
meeting, one of the leading rotten idea breakthroughs of all
time," Dougherty declared after Perot quit the presidential
race. He figures Perot got carried away by the "First Law
of Technology: ...If something CAN be done with electronics
and computers, it SHOULD be done with electronics and
computers."

Drew, Elizabeth. "Letter from Washington." New Yorker, May 18, 1992,
pp. 83-90.

In a lengthy "Letter from Washington," Drew examines the Perot
phenomenon. She maintains that his electronic town hall idea "is
a formula ripe for demagoguery," and that the concept "has the
aura of quasi-fascism." She suggests that "the cry that the
politicians are `out of touch' is mistaken: if anything, the
elected politicians are too in touch with the moods of their
constituents, and extremely loath to get crossways with them.
This is what lies behind the inability, or reluctance, to do
anything difficult."

Dugger, Ronnie. "Who Is Ross Perot? - I: Electronic Caesar?" The
Nation, Jun. 15, 1992, pp. 813-15.

Dugger argues that "Perot's electronic town hall could
replace American representative democracy with rule by The
Leader and a series of momentary mobs." His main objection
has more to do with the way issues might be framed and
controlled than with how feedback would be registered.

Elshtain, Jean Bethke. "A Parody of True Democracy." Christian Science
Monitor, Aug. 13, 1992.

Comparing the Perot agenda of "plebiscitary majoritarianism"
with a Frank Capra film, Bethke-Elshtain contends that
"plebiscites must be criticized no matter who is championing
their use." Like the villains of Capra's horror films who
took advantage of civic discontent to further their own
nefarious schemes, those who advocate electronic referenda
are appealing to people as consumers rather than public
citizens. "The notion that an electronic transaction is an
authentic democratic choice," is misguided, she says; "a
compilation of opinions does not make a civic culture; such
a culture emerges only from a deliberative process."

Fishkin, James S. "A Voice for 'We, the People' in the Electoral
Process." Chronicle of Higher Education, Jul. 1, 1992.

The electronic town hall advocated by Perot is "neither
representative nor deliberative," Fishkin offers. He sets
forth an alternative model he calls the "deliberative
opinion poll."

Fishkin, James S. "Beyond Teledemocracy: `America on the Line.'" The
Responsive Community, Summer 1992, pp. 13-19.

Fishkin challenges Perot's vision of teledemocracy stressing
the need for deliberative polls. These arguments are
developed further in his book Democracy and Deliberation.

Georges, Christopher. "Perot and Con." The Washington Monthly, June
1993, pp. 38-43.

Perot's teledemocracy is "supposed to bypass special
interests and take the influence of money out of politics,"
says Georges. "It Won't."

Golson, Barry & Range, Peter Ross. "Interview: Ross Perot." TV Guide,
Jun. 20, 1992, pp. 5-10, 27-28.

In this interview, Perot describes how he would use
television if he were elected president.

Goodman, Walter. "And Now, Heeeeeeeere's a Referendum!" The New York
Times, Jun. 21, 1992, p. B25.

Goodman offers a scathing critique of Perot's notion of an
electronic town hall, which he calls a "meritocracy of the
tube."

Katz, Jon. "Dial-a-President." Op-Ed. The New York Times, Nov. 16,
1992, p. A12.

Katz has it that the media scoff at Perot's ideas out of
convention and narrow-mindedness, when in fact Perot
represents the age of the new technologies which will
radically transform politics.

Kelly, Michael. "Perot's Vision: Consensus by Computer." The New York
Times, Jun. 6, 1992, pp. A1, A8.

Ross Perot's vision of the electronic town hall is neither
new nor revolutionary, Kelly reports, suggesting that it may
"make worse the very ills it proposes to correct." Kelly
outlines a series of problems at the core of the Perot
strategy and cites several of its most vehement critics.

Kenney, Michael. "The F-Word." Op-Ed. The Boston Globe, May 15, 1992, p. 15.

Kenney believes that "it was the electronic town hall notion
which suggested most strongly that Perot's grasp of the
basic outline of the American system of government is hazy
at best." The concept has the ring of quasi-fascism to it,
he says.

Kilpatrick, James J. "The Misguided Notion of Electronic Town
Meetings." Universal Press Syndicate, June 1992.

Kilpatrick argues that in advancing the "loony proposition"
of electronic town meetings, Ross Perot is "nuts." What
Perot fails to understand, he says, "is that big issues are
never simple issues."

Larry King Live. Interview with Ross Perot. Cable News Network, Jan. 11,
1993, CNN transcript #737

Perot talks about his plans for United We Stand America in
1993 and beyond.

Kirp, David L. "Two Cheers for the Electronic Town Hall: Or Ross Perot,
Meet Alexis de Tocqueville." The Responsive Community,
Fall 1992, pp. 48-52.

Ross Perot "is onto something," according to Kirp. He says
"it's hard to muzzle a giggle" at the media's response to
Perot's idea of an electronic town hall. Giving the people
a voice - however limited - is a laudable initiative, and
"an aspiration Tocqueville would admire." (See M.
Schudson's response.)

Kitman, Marvin. "Let Viewers Run the U.S.? Very Scary." Newsday, Jun.
11, 1992, p. 69.

Skeptical reflections on Perot and his electronic town hall
concept.

London, Scott. "Electronic Town Hall Can't Beat Real Thing" Dayton
Daily News, March 20, 1993.

Some thoughts about value of face-to-face democracy on the
eve of Perot's nationally televised electronic town hall.
"What we need," London says, "is a real town meeting, not a
high-tech opinion poll masquerading as one."

Lowi, Theodore J. "Mr. Perot, Form a Party." Editorial. The New York
Times, Apr. 6, 1992, p. A19.

In an open letter to Perot, Lowi says that the peril of his
candidacy is his innocence. Electronic town halls "would
not be governing," Lowi writes, "it would be public-opinion
polling."

McManus, Michael J. "The Ultimate Town Meeting: Dialing D for
Democracy." Washington Post, May 5, 1992.

Perot's notion of electronic town halls is an idea whose
time has come, according to McManus. That they should be
used as referenda is taking it too far, but as vehicles for
public debate they would involve citizens directly in the
framing of national issues, he writes.

Marzorati, Gerald. "From Tocqueville to Perotville." Op-Ed. The New York
Times, Jun. 28, 1992.

Perot is less a political than a social phenomenon,
Marzorati suggests. His ascent in the political arena is
characteristic of a "techno-burbanite" vision of life far
removed from the American spirit Tocqueville admired.
Teledemocracy a la Perot is no substitute, says Marzorati,
for genuine public life which takes us, "if only for a
moment, out of [our] private [selves]."

Mitofsky, Warren. "Mr. Perot, You're No Pollster." New York Times, Mar.
27, 1993, p. A21.

Mitofsky charges that Perot's electronic referendum was
"loaded" from the outset.

Moeller, Susan. "Sorry, Ross. I Don't See What You Mean." Editorial.
The Seattle Times, Jul. 4, 1992, p. A9.

An editorial about the inconsistencies of Perot's
"electronic candicacy." "Massive conference calls,
touch-tone plebiscites, electronic referendums, and
tele-town meetings," Moeller observes, "threaten to replace
the cumbersome but face-to-face political institutions of
the past."

Molyneux, Guy & Schneider, William. "Ross is Boss." The Atlantic
Monthly, May 1993, pp. 84-90.

A post-election reassessment of the Perot phenomenon.

Noel, Don. "Perot's Dangerous Idea: Running Government by Polls." The
Hartford Courant, Jun. 10, 1992, p. B13.

Among the many dangers of electronic town meetings, Noel
notes several basic problems: "few policy issues can be
thoroughly presented in an hour or two;" the polls would
draw a "self-selected opinionated group;" and people would
be moved "by the last dramatic image or emotional appeal
they see" before registering their vote.

Peirce, Neal R. "Electronic Town Halls? Right On, Ross." National
Journal, June 6, 1992.

"Maybe the nation is ready to leave the 'information age'
for the 'interactive age,'" Peirce says, arguing that
Perot's idea - possibly "the most original idea to emerge in
this election year" - speaks to the need for a new kind of
citizenship and a new kind of government, both based on
mutual respect and counsel.

Perot, Ross. ROSS PEROT SPEAKS OUT. James W. Robinson, ed.
(Rocklin, CA: Prima, 1992)

A compilation of Ross Perot sound bites - taken from
interviews, press conferences, and rallies - on everything
from deficit reduction and "Washington gridlock" to
"Electronic Town Halls."

"Perot Hit on Electronic Town Meetings." Television Digest, Sep. 13,
1993. See also related article in Communications Daily, Sep. 10,
1993 ("Distortion and Disruption: Perot Use of Electronic Town
Meetings Scored by Political Scientists.")

Report of the discussion at annual convention of the American
Political Science Association about the use of electronic
town meetings. Among those quoted here are Christa Slaton,
Amitai Etzioni, Benjamin Barber, and Ted Becker.

Rodricks, Dan. "Couch Potato Democracy? Not Just Yet." The Toronto
Star, Jul. 20, 1992, p. A17.

A lighthearted op-ed piece on Perot's electronic town hall
concept.

Schudson, Michael. "Teledemocracy or Tell-a-Democracy?" The
Responsive Community, Winter 1992/93.

Schudson responds to David Kirp's article "Two Cheers for
the Electronic Town Hall," suggesting that electronic forums
are undoubtedly a good idea, but that Perot's notion "sounds
nearer to Bonaparte than to a New England town meeting."

Steinert-Threlkeld, Tom. "Direct-dial Democracy." Montreal Gazette, May
9, 1992.

Dallas Morning News journalist Tom Steinert-Threlkeld
reports on Perot's electronic town hall idea, which "could
profoundly reshape the conduct of U.S. politics.... The
transformation could be as dramatic as that ushered in by
television three decades ago...."


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INTERACTIVE TELEVISION
-------------------------------------------------------------------

"Another Side to the QUBE Package." Broadcasting, Jan. 12, 1981, pp. 76, 78.

Discusses the information retrieval capacities (a la
videotex) of Warner-Amex's QUBE service.

"The Electronic Town Meeting is Alive and Well; Interactive Network
Surveys Membership on Key Sacramento and Bay Area Issues."
Business Wire, Jun. 2, 1992.

A report about Interactive Network (IN), a Mountain View,
CA, company that has provided interactive TV programming
since mid-1991.

Elgin, Duane. "Sustainable Television." In Context, No. 23, pp. 26-27.

Elgin contends that the major challenges facing us today are
communicative in nature. Television, as our primary com-
munications medium, must be sustained and better developed.
He outlines four ways to "make a dramatic leap forward in
mass human communication through the immensely powerful
vehicle of television," including the "vigorous development
of interactive television."

Elgin, Duane. "TV + Telephone = Electronic Democracy." Utne Reader,
Jul./Aug. 1990, pp. 70-71.

"Citizens of a conscious democracy `know their own mind' - they
are in touch with changing thoughts and sentiments of the larger
communities through regular dialogue and feedback," Elgin writes.
Interactive television can dramatically enhance the communal
dialogue, he suggests, although it would be "strictly advisory"
rather than plebiscitary.

Elgin, Duane. TELEVISION AND DEMOCRACY AT THE CROSSROADS. (Menlo Park,
CA: Choosing Our Future, 1982)

Elgin delineates what he sees as a crisis of communication
and a crisis of democracy in America. He believes that
television can remedy both since more Americans depend on it
for information than on any other medium. More informative
programming is one step, he suggests, and interactive
programs is another.

Elshtain, Jean Bethke. "Democracy and the QUBE Tube." The Nation, Aug.
7, 1982, pp. 108-10.

Elshtain maintains that teledemocracy is a plebiscitary
system, not democracy. Television, she argues, addresses
viewers as private people, not public citizens.

Fishkin, James S. "Talk of the Tube: How to Get Teledemocracy
Right." The American Prospect, Fall, 1992, pp. 46-52.

The central weaknesses of teledemocracy - the "stylized
impression management" of television, polling and the vague
promise of direct democracy through interactive media - are
also its potential strengths, Fishkin suggests, outlining
his plan for a "deliberative opinion poll" where the people
have the opportunity to "think about the power they are
supposed to exercise."

Gergen, David. "The Dawn of Satellite Politics." U.S. News & World
Report, May 4, 1992, p. 35.

Gergen reports that NET (National Empowerment Television) is
the first interactive television network with a political
agenda and that its accomplishment is "altogether healthy:
it is reconnecting citizens to each other and to their
leaders."

Korn, Peter A. "Video Technology in Local Government." Public
Management, Nov. 1989, pp. 12- 14.

Korn suggests that video technology can be a powerful
communications tool for local government in training,
marketing and information sharing.

Lieberman, Joseph I. "TV's Watching You." New York Times, May 31, 1983.

A report on the first experiments in interactive television,
how they work, their promises and potential dangers.

McCarron, Katherine. "Lobbying Congress from Your La-Z-Boy."
National Journal, Nov. 21, 1992, p. 2688.

A report on USA VOTE - an new interactive public affairs TV
program in Washington.

Mander, Jerry. FOUR ARGUMENTS FOR THE ELIMINATION OF TELEVISION. (New
York: William Morrow & Co., 1978)

As the title suggests, Mander maintains that television is
profoundly destructive to genuine democracy. TV mediates
our experience by removing its natural context; it is
dominated by a handful of corporate powers; it isolates
people from one another; and it is laden with inherent
biases which limit and confine human knowledge and
awareness. Mander argues that the problem is the limits of
the medium, not the limts of the public. He concludes that
we are faced with an impossible choice: we will have to
either sacrifice our democracy or eliminate TV altogether.

"The Model Electrorate: An Experiment in Democracy." Project
proposal. KQED, San Francisco, CA., Feb., 1992.

A proposal for a series of interactive TV discussion
programs using Public Agenda Foundation materials to explore
vital election year issues.

"Oregon; On the Wagon." The Economist, Jun. 6, 1992, p. 27.

Reports how Governor Barbara Roberts of Oregon made use of
interactive television to gauge the views of her
constituency on key Oregon issues.

Wicklein, John. ELECTRONIC NIGHTMARE. (New York: Viking Press, 1981)

"For almost every blessing [the new] technologies bring,
they pose a danger to our individual liberty and our
privacy," Wicklein writes. He argues that if commercial
interests are afforded free rein to develop communications
technology, an awesome power would effectively be handed
over to a handful of corporate powers whose essential aim is
to manipulate individuals as potential consumers. He
devotes a chapter each to QUBE and Reading, Pennsyvania's
BCTV.

Yoder Jr., Edwin M. "Tele-Tunnel Vision." Washington Post, Feb. 14, 1993.

An op-ed piece "recalling, in an age of talk-show politics,
Marshall McLuhan's prophetic message about America's Medium
of Choice" - television.


-------------------------------------------------------------------
COMPUTER NETWORKING
-------------------------------------------------------------------

Branscomb, Anne Wells. "Jurisdictional Quandaries for Global
Networks" in GLOBAL NETWORKS. Linda M. Harasim, ed. (Cambridge,
MA: MIT Press, 1993)

The emergence of "global electronic villages" which
transcend public and private sectors and national borders
and interests represents a formidable challenge to the
sovereignty of national governments as well as the rights of
individual networks and user groups, according to Branscomb.
She surveys some recent case histories and discusses
numerous efforts currently underway to harmonize national
laws with global networks.

Brilliant, Lawrence B. "Computer Conferencing: The Global
Connection." Whole Earth Review, Summer 1991, pp. 18-19.

Brilliant, co-founder of the WELL network, maintains that
"with the advent of electronic meeting technology, the
thrust of civilization can now occur without the factor of
proximity."

Cisler, Steve. "Community Computer Networks: Building Electronic
Greenbelts" Jun. 20, 1993.

This rather comrehensive introduction to community networks
surveys a number of existing networks, looks at various
network models, examines the impact they can have on the
environment in which they grow, and makes a few wild guesses
about the future of such networks given the changes in
computing and telecommunications technologies.

Conrad, Rich. "Electronic Democracy." Public Management, Nov. 1989, pp. 8-9.

A report on how the city of Mercer Island, Washington,
installed a local community computer network to create
"informative and fun communication links with citizens."

Cooke, Kevin & Lehrer, Dan. "The Whole World is Talking." The
Nation, Jul. 12, 1993, pp. 60-63

Cooke and Lehrer describe the Internet as a "community
without walls" that is transforming the way people
communicate. The question for the future is whether it will
remain in the hands of individuals or be controlled by phone
and cable corporations.

Crickman, Robin & Kochen, Manfred. "Citizen Participation Through
Computer Conferencing." Technological Forecasting and Social
Change, May 1979, pp. 47-64.

Describes a small computer conferencing experiment involving
discussion of a public policy issue (recombinant DNA).
Addresses the need for informed opinion, working through an
issue, and seeking common ground.

Frederick, Howard. "Computer Networks and the Emergence of Global Civil
Society" in GLOBAL NETWORKS. Linda M. Harasim, ed.
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1993)

The remarkable growth of non-governmental organizations
(NGOs) in the 1980s and early 1990s is due "in no small
measure to the development of globe-girdling communications
technologies," Frederick says. As an illustration of the
phenomenon of global civil society, he describes the
emergence of the Association for Progressive Communications
(APC) € an NGO that directs and supports a web of global
computer networks such as EcoNet, PeaceNet, Pegasus and
ComLink. "Communications technologies such as the APC
networks are transforming international relations," he
concludes.

Godwin, Mike. "The Electronic Frontier Foundation and Virtual
Communities." Whole Earth Review, Summer 1991, pp. 40-42.

Godwin describes the Electronic Frontier Foundation, a
computer network that characterizes itself as a
"neighborhood" citizen action group.

Harasim, Linda M. "Networlds: Networks as Social Space" in GLOBAL
NETWORKS. Linda M. Harasim, ed. (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press,
1993)

Computer networks have become new environments for business,
educational, and social communication, but they are not
merely "tools" whereby we network, Harasim suggests, "they
have come to be experienced as places where we network: a
networld." She likens computer conferences to meetings,
learning circles, and cafes - they transform "inhospitable
message systems into a vibrant social community.... There is
a purpose, a place, and a population."

Kapor, Mitchell & Weitzner, Daniel. "Social and Industrial Policy for
Public Networks" in GLOBAL NETWORKS. Linda M. Harasim, ed.
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1993)

Kapor and Weitzner outline a series of incremental steps
toward the development of what they call the International
Public Network (IPN) € an interconnected confederation of
computer networks that will form the main channels of
commerce and education in tomorrow's global society. This
chapter explores some of the legal, economic, and organiza-
tional issues involved in framing a policy approach to the
IPN (based in part on the trials and errors of the
Internet). While Kapor and Weitzner feel that these
questions have wider international applications, their
discussion centers primarily on U.S. policy. The
government, they conclude, "has a continued role to play as
networks grow nationally and internationally."

Laughlin, Thomas W. "Virtual Relationships: The Solitary World of CMC."
Interpersonal Computing and Technology (E-Journal), Vol 1,
No 1, (January 1993).

Computer-mediated communication has begun to produce many
interesting side-effects, Laughlin observes. One of the
more interesting what he calls "virtual solitude" - the
feeling one gets while sitting alone in front of a computer
screen and realizing that one is literally connected to
thousands of people at once.

Lovett, Rich. "City Hall in the Mall." Public Management, Nov. 1989,
pp. 4-7.

Describes Kansas City's initiative to install an interactive
computer link between local citizens and their government.

Mason, Robin. "Computer Conferencing and the New Europe" in GLOBAL
NETWORKS. Linda M. Harasim, ed. (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press,
1993)

This chapter provides a general overview of computer
networking in Europe and its role in the development of a
"European Village."

Metz, J. "Computer-Mediated Communication: Literature Review of a New
Context." Interpersonal Computing and Technology (E-Journal), Vol
2, No 2, (April 1994), pp. 1-14.

This paper surveys the existing literature on computer-
mediated communication (CMC). Metz finds little continuity
among the different sub-contexts of CMC (such as electronic
mail, computer conferencing, Relay, and Multiple User
Dungeons) and offers a more cohesive framework for future
research.

Moran, Julio. "Electronic Town Meetings has Community Buzzing." Los
Angeles Times, Feb. 28, 1990, p. B9.

Reports on Santa Monica's innovative public computer network
PEN (Public Electronic Network).

Pitta, Julie. "Electronic Democracy." Forbes, Oct. 1, 1990, p. 132.

A report on Santa Monica's Public Electronic Network (PEN).

Quarterman, John S. "The Global Matrix of Minds" in GLOBAL
NETWORKS. Linda M. Harasim, ed. (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press,
1993)

This chapter discusses the history and future prospects of
computer networks from the perspective of technology as well
as interpersonal communication. For Quarterman, there is a
distinct connection between the two. "Networks may start as
solely technological tools," he writes, "but they don't stay
that way if they survive. They develop into places where
people go, which turn into communities, which develop
politics, economics, and legal issues. The sum of all these
things is a society"

Riel, Margaret. "Global Education through Learning Circles" in GLOBAL
NETWORKS. Linda M. Harasim, ed. (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press,
1993)

Riel discusses how learning circles - "small electronic
communities" - can be used as a model of global networking
in the classroom. While computer networks make it possible
to bring people together regardless of physical location and
also foster a "stimulating, cooperative context for teachers
and students," they cannot substitute for quality dialogue.

Rheingold, Howard. "A Slice of Life in My Virtual Community" in GLOBAL
NETWORKS. Linda M. Harasim, ed. (Cambridge, MA: MIT
Press, 1993)

Like the introduction of telephones and television,
computer-mediated communication has transformed the way we
perceive and communicate, turning old social codes inside
out and making new kinds of communities possible. The main
question for the future is "whether this is a new way to
make genuine commitments to other human beings or a silicon-
induced illusion of community." According to Rheingold, the
answer to this question depends less on technology itself
than on "the ways people need to, fail to, and try to
communicate with one another."

Rheingold, Howard. VIRTUAL COMMUNITY: HOMESTEADING ON THE ELECTRONIC
FRONTIER. (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1993)

In Rheingold's view, the computer has introduced a new form
of human social life called "virtual communities" - groups
of people linked by their participation in computer
networks. Rheingold's prime example of a virtual community
is his own computer network, the WELL. He sees computer-
mediated communiation as the means of bringing about a true
decentralized democracy, since, on the network, everyone is
equal, diembodied, and without the usual markers of social
status. [Book review]

Sullivan, Kristina B. "Road to Electronic Democracy Begins in
Conferencing System." PC Week, Mar. 20, 1989, pp. 29-30.

A report on Santa Monica's Public Electronic Network (PEN).

Talbott, Stephen L. "Countercultural Computing." Interpersonal Computing
and Technology (E-Journal), Vol 2, No 2, (April 1994),
pp. 74-87.

Reflections on Howard Rheingold's book VIRTUAL COMMUNITY.

Varley, Pamela. "Electronic Democracy." Technology Review, Nov/Dec.
1992, pp. 42-51.

Discusses Santa Monica's Public Electronic Network (PEN) -
design, planned use, actual use, problems, and
accomplishments.

Walls, Jan. "Global Networking for Local Development" in GLOBAL NETWORKS.
Linda M. Harasim, ed. (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1993)

Walls maintains that groups of people linked by their
participation in global computer networks share many of the
same features as traditional, face-to-face groups. On-line
groups are characterized by shared goals, shared interests,
and even shared space ("cyberspace"). "Virtual groups" or
"virtual communities" are best seen as supplementing rather
than supplanting regular face-to-face communities, however,
since they are usually more cohesive when centered around a
specific goal or project.

Wittig, Michele. "Electronic City Hall." Whole Earth Review, Summer
1991, pp. 24-27.

Wittig writes about her experiences with Santa Monica's PEN
Action Group - a form of electronic community organizing.

Wright, Robert. "Voice of America: Overhearing the Internet." The New
Republic, Sep. 13, 1993.

An exploration of life on the Internet, "a place where any
interest can be indulged." Wright suggests that the growth
of the Internet will probably "hasten the demise of physical
community."

-------------------------------------------------------------------
TECHNOLOGY, POLLS, AND PUBLIC OPINION
-------------------------------------------------------------------

Achen, Christopher H. "Mass Political Attitudes and the Survey
Response." The American Political Science Review, Vol. 69
(1975), pp. 1218-31.

Achen documents his study into public opinion polls which
found that voters' political attitudes were generally
unstable and that opinion survey questions are often
unreliable.

Adams, Paul D. "Seeking Audience Feedback." National Forum, Fall 1987,
pp. 18-20.

The "gap" between journalists and the public can only be
bridged by personal feedback; it is essential in order to
restore public confidence, according to Adams. Feedback in
mass communication is, however, typically delayed, filtered
and confused. While the standard forms marketplace data,
audience-initiated comments, media solicited opinions, etc.
all have their place, none substitutes for personal contact.
Adams gives examples of ways in which news organizations
have undertaken personal feedback.

Apple Jr., R.W. "Challenges from a Headstrong Public." New York Times,
Jan. 28, 1993.

An increasingly tuned-in and informed public is "the most
unpredictable" challenge to the new Clinton administration,
Apple reports. "With the whole country wired ... a kind of
permanent election may be taking hold."

Baldwin, Deborah. "Push-Button Democracy." Utne Reader, Sept./Oct. 1992,
pp. 9-20.

Baldwin examines the current debate over electronic
referenda (which she calls "insta-polling") and cites recent
articles by Elgin, Dugger, Hitchens and Barber.

Barber, Benjamin. "Opinion Polls: Public Judgment or Private
Prejudice?" The Responsive Community, Spring, 1992. pp. 4-6.

"Polls that probe private prejudice give prejudice public
standing and reinforce its legitimacy," according to Barber.
We need more civic-minded and deliberative means of
determining what Americans think, he says.

Bradburn, Norman M.; Sudman, Seymour. POLLS AND SURVEYS. (San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1988)

A good introduction to the fundamentals of public opinion
polling, which the authors maintain has been "and will
continue to be the best way of measuring the voice of the
people."

Bryce, James (Lord Bryce). THE AMERICAN COMMONWEALTH: Volume II. (New
York: Commonwealth Publ. Co., 1888, 1908.)

A classic study of American government and society, which
includes one of the earliest examinations of "how public
opinion rules in America."

Crespi, Irving. PUBLIC OPINION, POLLS, AND DEMOCRACY. (Boulder, CO:
Westview Press, 1989)

Crespi, former head of The Gallup Organization, offers a
critique of the polling enterprise from an insider's point
of view. He suggests that the public must be aware of how
polls are conducted and that the media must change how they
report them if they are to be politically constructive.

Fishkin, James S. DEMOCRACY AND DELIBERATION. (New Haven, CT: Yale Univ.
Press, 1992)

Arguing for the usefulness and importance of deliberative
opinion polls, Fishkin places them within the history of
democratic theory and practice, exploring models of
democracy ranging from ancient Athens and the debates of the
American founders to contemporary transitions toward
democracy in Eastern Europe. Critiquing several recent
election reform proposals, Fishkin calls for a new research
agenda and innovations that would bring "power to the
people" under conditions where the people could exercise
their power more thoughtfully. He offers his book as the
first step toward a more adequate theory of democracy that
would provide the basis for inspiring strategies of
democratic reform. The book includes a detailed plan for
implementing the deliberative opinion polls.

Harvey, Miles. "The Polling of America." Utne Reader, Nov/Dec 1988, pp.
10-11.

"Are public opinion surveys a substitute for true
democracy," Harvey asks. He suggests that "the reason
leaders don't lead is that they're too busy following the
polls."

Hitchens, Christopher. "Voting in the Passive Voice." Harper's Magazine,
Apr. 1992, pp. 45-52.

Hitchens draws a parallel between the rise of pollsters and
the demise of democracy. "Opinion polling was born out of a
struggle not to discover the public mind but to master it,"
he writes.

Howard, James. "Nixon's Listeners." Letter to the Editor, New York
Times, Jun. 21, 1992.

In this letter to the editor, Howard describes a project he
undertook in 1969, as President Nixon's adviser, to
ascertain "public needs and desires" - and the problems they
confronted.

Lippman, Walter. THE ESSENTIAL LIPPMANN. Clinton Rossiter and James
Lare, eds. (New York: Vintage, 1963, 1965)

An anthology of the writings of Lippmann, including
extensive excerpts from his pioneering works Public Opinion
(1922) and The Phantom Public (1925).

Mann, Thomas E.; Orren, Gary R., eds. MEDIA POLLS IN AMERICAN
POLITICS. (Wash. DC: Brookings Institution, 1992)

In this collection of essays - featuring chapters by E.J.
Dionne Jr., Michael Traugott, Michael Kagay, Henry Brady,
Kathleen Frankovic, Everett Carll Ladd and John Benson - the
editors contend that media polls can be a constructive part
of American public life but only if they are used to help
report news, not create it. Televoting and call-ins
"pollute" the survey process, they argue.

Scanlan, Christopher. "Government by Poll Endangers our Democracy." St.
Petersburg Times, Dec. 4, 1988, p. 1D

Scanlan reports on White House pollsters, and suggests, on
the eve of the Bush presidency, that "it has become dismally
clear that America is heading for four more years of
government by poll."

Shapiro, Walter. "Vaulting over Political Polls." Time, Jul. 22, 1991,
p. 21.

Schapiro reports that James Fishkin "may have finally
invented a better mousetrap ... he calls his innovative
method for bridging the chasm between electors and the
elected `a deliberative opinion poll.'"

Webb, Kenneth; Hatry, Harry P. OBTAINING CITIZEN FEEDBACK. (Wash. DC:
The Urban Institute, 1973)

Examines the use of citizen surveys (not polls) for
providing useful and representative citizen feedback.